Shao J, Evers BM, Sheng H. of Deflazacort diferent mTOR inhibitors in a population of colon cancer stem cells (CSCs), and current major challenges for achieving individualized drug therapy using kinase inhibitors. oncogenicity in some cases. However, the Deflazacort tumorigenic potential of the mTOR gene has only recently been established. By introducing mutations into evolutionarily conserved amino acid residues in major functional domains of human mTOR, Murugan tumorigenicity. This discovery of oncogenic mTOR mutations may facilitate the design of drugs targeting mTOR, as well as help predict their efficacy. For example, in yeast, resistance to Rapalogs has been associated with mutations in FK506 binding protein 12 (FKBP12) or the FKBP-rapamycin-binding (FRB) domain name of TOR [26]. mTOR’s role in proliferation, differentiation and senescence While emerging evidence supports a central role of the mTOR pathway in cell growth and cancer progression, increased mTOR activity can also play a role mediating the depletion of the epithelial stem cell compartment. Indeed, the aberrant activation of the mTOR pathway can paradoxically cause cells to undergo differentiation or senescence, thereby exiting the proliferative cell pool [27]. This concept is usually well exhibited by the fact that persistent activation of mTOR by wingless-related MMTV integration site 1 (Wnt1) leads to accelerated epithelial stem cell senescence and premature aging in mice [28, 29]. Accordingly, inhibition of mTOR prevents the loss of proliferative epithelial progenitor stem cells upon radiation and enhances their tissue repopulating capacity [30]. Similarly, mTOR inhibition by Rapamycin enriches CD133+ subpopulations in liver tumor cells [31]. This enrichment is most likely achieved through blocking differentiation of the CD133+ subpopulations, enhancing apoptosis in the CD133? subsets, and triggering the conversion of CD133? to CD133+ cells. Thus, the maintenance of CD133+ cells by Rapamycin leads to high continuous tumorigenic potential in the context of liver Deflazacort cancer. These data suggest that mTOR signaling is usually involved in regulating the balance of proliferation and differentiation of cancer stem cells (CSCs) and that transient inhibition of mTOR can promote tumor re-emergence in certain tumor types via enrichment of CSCs. The molecular mechanism(s) underlying these paradoxical effects of mTOR are not fully understood. It has been suggested that strong oncogenic signals (RAS, PI3K) concomitantly induce cell cycle arrest and activation of growth-promoting (i.e., anabolic) pathways such mTOR. Cell cycle arrest by itself is not yet senescence [32]. Nevertheless, in the presence of growth-stimulation, cell cycle blockage eventually leads to senescence. This mechanism by which arrested cells are converted to senescent cells has been named gerogenic conversion or geroconversion [33]. To avoid geroconversion, cancer cells must drop expression of cell cycle inhibitors, such as p53. Thus, cross-talk between p53 and the mTOR signaling pathways can determine whether stressed cells undergo apoptosis, reversible quiescence or irreversible senescence [34]. Inhibitors of mTOR can suppress geroconversion, protecting adult stem cells from undergoing premature cell senescence while simultaneously preventing their oncogenic transformation [35]. Amongst mTOR inhibitors, Rapamycin has been defined as a longevity enhancer and cancer preventative agent in the context of p53 deficiency [36]. Indeed, continuous treatment with Rapamycin or a novel Rapamycin formulation (Rapatar) delayed carcinogenesis in tumor-prone p53+/?and p53?/?mice respectively, most likely by slowing down the process of aging [37, 38]. Similarly, chronic treatment of mice with an enterically released formulation of Rapamycin (eRapa) delayed the onset and/or progression of neuroendocrine tumors in Rb1+/? mice [39]. Likewise, hypoxia can decelerate geroconversion and extend lifespan. Indeed, not only does hypoxia arrests cell cycle, but also inhibits the mTOR pathway, thus preventing irreversible cellular senescence [40]. It turns out that in stem cell niches, stem cells might be guarded from senescence and maintained in a quiescent status instead, thanks to the low oxygen levels which characterize stem cell niches [41]. Overall, these studies point out molecular differences in normal and cancer cells that can be exploited to prevent tumor growth without disrupting the function of normal tissues and cells. Development of mTOR inhibitors: progress and challenges Rapamycin, a macrolide antibiotic produced by pre-clinical studies using ATP-competitive inhibitors of mTOR pre-clinical studies using PI3K and mTOR dual inhibitors immunohistochemical studies on human colorectal adenomas and cancers confirmed that mTORC1 signaling occurs as an early event in the process of tumorigenesis, and participates in the Deflazacort progression of normal cells to a neoplastic phenotype [156], sustaining the bases of mTORC1-targeted drug development for therapy and prevention of colon polyps and cancers. Accordingly, Everolimus-mediated mTORC1 inhibition suppressed polyp formation and reduced mortality in Apc716 mice [157]. However, blocking of a specific pathway may disrupt the balance between signaling pathways and enhance oncogenic signals. In that CKLF regard, in parallel with its cytostatic effect, mTORC1 inhibition by Rapamycin strongly increased MAPK kinase (MEK)/ERK activity, resulting in the appearance of a spindle morphology and higher invasiveness of KRAS-transformed intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) [158]. In this system, Rapamycin treatment also increased Bcl-2 levels, further indicating the need to.